mcgraw hill, chapter 22 summery

CHAPTER 22
The Battle for National Reform

CHAPTER SUMMARY
Few American presidents have left the stamp of their personality so deeply on the executive
office as Theodore Roosevelt. An “accidental” president as the result of the assassination of
William McKinley, Roosevelt entered the White House in 1901 and, in short order, established
himself as the nation’s preeminent progressive. Roosevelt’s dynamic energy and flair and his
self-proclaimed desire to give all Americans a “square deal” endeared him to a generation of
reformers. Like the progressive movement at large, Roosevelt was the embodiment of many
contradictions. As Roosevelt aggressively expanded the regulatory authority of the federal
government, he was also no trustbusting radical, accepting many of the conventional practices of
business. This same duality of beliefs was again evident in Roosevelt’s foreign policy. The man
who was awarded a Nobel Peace Prize for helping to end war between Russia and Japan also
encouraged and aided a revolt in Colombia so he could build a canal in Panama.
In 1908 Roosevelt turned the presidency over to his handpicked successor, William
Howard Taft. But Taft soon alienated his predecessor and other progressive Republicans by his
action (or inaction) on the tariff, the trusts, and the environment. In 1912 Roosevelt decided to
challenge Taft for the Republican nomination and reclaim progressivism for the Party. When he
failed to secure the nomination, Roosevelt organized a third political party. With the Republican
vote split, Democratic candidate Woodrow Wilson won the presidency in 1912 under the banner
of his New Freedom slogan. Although Wilson, like Roosevelt, believed in an activist national
government, Wilson initially wanted to destroy the trusts and restore small-scale capitalism—
once and, he hoped, for all. He too would wax and wane in his reform enthusiasm. Whatever
their approaches, both Wilson and Roosevelt continued to expand the significance of the White
House at home and the United States overseas. In foreign affairs, which were to dominate
Wilson’s second term, he continued the pattern of military intervention coupled with an assertion
of moral authority that Roosevelt had established.

OBJECTIVES
A thorough study of Chapter 22 should enable the student to understand:

1. The nature and extent of Theodore Roosevelt’s New Nationalist progressivism

2. The similarities and differences between the domestic progressivism of Theodore Roosevelt
and that of William Howard Taft

3. The conservation issue, and why it triggered a split between Taft and Roosevelt

4. The consequences of the Taft–Roosevelt split for the Republicans in 1912

5. The conceptual differences and practices between Roosevelt’s New Nationalism and
Wilson’s New Freedom

6. The differences between Wilson’s New Freedom and the measures actually implemented
during his first term in the White House

91

7. Roosevelt’s foreign policy in Asia and the Caribbean, and the similarities and differences
between the Roosevelt and Taft approaches to foreign policy

8. The reasons for the continuation of American interventionism in Latin America under
President Wilson

MAIN THEMES
1. How Theodore Roosevelt’s leadership helped fashion a new and expanded role for the
national government

2 How the administration of William Howard Taft continued—and departed from—
Roosevelt’s progressivism

3. How the administration of Woodrow Wilson embodied both conservative and progressive
features

4. That American foreign policy became much more interventionist, especially in the Caribbean

POINTS FOR DISCUSSION

1. In what ways did Theodore Roosevelt transform the role of the presidency and the national
government? What was his public image, and how did it affect his policies?

2. In what way was Roosevelt a progressive? How was he a conservative? Was he more one or
the other?

3. Compare and contrast the personalities, politics, philosophies, and programs of Theodore
Roosevelt, William Howard Taft, and Woodrow Wilson. How did these factors affect their
leadership styles and accomplishments in domestic affairs? Should all three be regarded as
progressive presidents? Why or why not?

4. Why did the apparently unified Republican Party of 1908 break into two hostile camps by
1912? Was Roosevelt justified in challenging Taft in 1912? What were the consequences of
that break?

5. Analyze the election of 1912 in terms of candidates, platforms, campaigns, and results.

6. What was the “money monopoly,” and what were the criticisms of it? How was the Federal
Reserve system designed to combat it?

7. Discuss the major domestic accomplishments as well as shortcomings of progressivism
between 1901 and 1917. What is its lasting significance in American history?

8. What objectives guided American foreign policy in Asia during the progressive era? Trace
the development of American–Japanese relations during the progressive era.

9. Was American foreign policy in Latin America during the progressive era effective? Explain.
Why was it so often interventionist? Was this a continuation or a break in American foreign
policy?

92

10. What do you think would have happened to domestic reform and in foreign relations if
Roosevelt had been elected president in 1912?

11. Why did big-government progressivism at home require big-government progressivism
abroad?

MAP EXERCISES
1. Identify the main areas of national forests.

2. Note the states carried by Roosevelt, Taft, and Wilson in 1912.

3. Identify Cuba, Mexico, Haiti, the Dominican Republic, Puerto Rico, the Virgin Islands,
Nicaragua, Panama, Venezuela, and Colombia. Note the countries in which the United States
intervened militarily.

4. Locate the Panama Canal.

INTERPRETATIVE QUESTIONS BASED ON MAPS AND TEXT
1. How did Theodore Roosevelt manage to expand the national forest system despite a hostile
Congress?

2. What were the two factions of the conservation movement? Explain Roosevelt’s position,
telling how it fit in with his political and personal background and with general progressive
ideals.

3. What area of the country is it safe to assume that Woodrow Wilson probably would have
carried even if the Republicans had not been split? What area is it safe to assume that
Woodrow Wilson probably would have lost had it not been for the Republican split?

4. What area of the country was typically characterized by fairly close elections between
Republicans and Democrats regardless of a party split?

5. Why did Roosevelt do better than Taft in the election of 1912?

6. Explain the motivation for Theodore Roosevelt’s special concern with the Caribbean region.
What policy did he formulate in response to his concern?

7. Where were the two possible routes for a Central American canal? What were the advantages
and disadvantages of each? Why did the United States settle on Panama?

8. Why was Colombia upset by American canal policy?

9. What events inspired American intervention in Nicaragua? Why was the country perceived to
be important to American interests?

10. What caused the border strife between the United States and Mexico? What was the result?

93

ESSAY QUESTIONS
These questions are based on the preceding map exercises. They are designed to test students’
knowledge of the geography of the area discussed in this chapter and of its historical
development. Careful reading of the text will help students answer these questions.

1. Why was progressivism accepted differently in different regions of the nation? What might
explain why Wisconsin became a model for the movement?

2. What long-term impact on national political tendencies grew from the progressive era?

3. Consider America’s rise to world power (Chapter 20) along with the increasingly activist
foreign policy of the first fifteen years of the twentieth century. What forces accounted for
this activism? Why was it most evident in the Caribbean region?

BIBLIOGRAPHY
John Morton Blum, The Republican Roosevelt (1954)
_____, Woodrow Wilson and the Politics of Morality (1956)
H. W. Brands, TR (1997)
John Milton Cooper, Jr., The Warrior and the Priest: Woodrow Wilson and Theodore Roosevelt
(1983)
Stephen R. Fox, The American Conservation Movement: John Muir and His Legacy (1981)
Lewis L. Gould, The Presidency of Theodore Roosevelt (1991)
P. Edward Haley, Revolution and Intervention: The Diplomacy of Taft and Wilson with Mexico,
1910-1917 (1975)
Akira Iriye, Pacific Estrangement: Japanese and American Expansion, 1897-1911 (1972)
Walter LaFeber, The Panama Canal (1978)
Arthur S. Link, Woodrow Wilson, 5 vols., (1947-1965)
Edmund Morris, Theodore Rex (2002)
John Opie, Nature’s Nation: An Environmental History of the United States (1998)
Julius W. Pratt, Challenge and Rejection: The United States and World Leadership, 1900-1921
(1967)
David Sarasohn, The Party of Reform: The Democrats in the Progressive Era (1989)
David Steigerwald, Wilsonian Idealism in America (1994)
Craig West, Banking Reform and the Federal Reserve, 1863-1923 (1977)

For Internet resources, practice questions, references to additional books and films, and more,
see this book’s Online Learning Center at www.mhhe.com/unfinishednation4.

mcgraw hill, chapter 21 summery

CHAPTER 21
The Rise of Progressivism

CHAPTER SUMMARY
The debate over progressivism asks the question to what degree were reformers motivated by the
plight of others, or to protect and improve their own lives and status? Were they really
“progressive” at all? However one answers these questions, there is no doubt that at the close of
the nineteenth century, millions of Americans looked at their society, did not like what they saw,
and acted to make profound changes to it. Convinced that rapid industrialization and
urbanization had created serious problems and great disorder, American reformers shared an
optimistic vision that a combination of private and governmental action could dramatically
improve society. These progressives sought to control monopoly, build social cohesion, promote
democracy, and improve both the public and private lives of individuals. In many respects, the
reform movement took on elements of being a crusade. Emotional and religious appeals could be
seen in “muckraking” journalists who exposed social ills, Social Gospel reformers, settlement
house workers, the temperance movement, and during the long fight for woman’s suffrage. Many
reformers, in fact, were women. This was the era of the “new woman,” whether she was building
an independent personal life or attacking ills that beset the whole of society.
Meanwhile, heightened standards of training and expertise were helping create a new
middle class of educated professionals. The progressives also tried to make politics more rational
by reducing the influence of political parties in municipal and state affairs. Parties, they believed,
should be vehicles for reform, not organizations to supply jobs to the party faithful. But the
reform movement had a conservative side as well. Some reformers believed that a lot of the
nation’s problems would simply go away if potential immigrants were kept out and if blacks
remained in their place. In response, other white progressives teamed with educated blacks to
form the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), which, among
other things, advocated an aggressive assertion of black civil rights. Also on the rise were radical
labor unions and the Socialist Party, which came to enjoy its greatest political successes in
America. By World War I, enormous changes had been effected in society. It has been the
struggle of historians to assess the meaning of those changes ever since.

OBJECTIVES
A thorough study of Chapter 21 should enable the student to understand:

1. The social justice reforms of the period and the role of various religious denominations in
carrying out the Social Gospel

2. The origins of the progressive impulse

3. The emphasis progressives placed on scientific expertise, organizational efficiency, and
education in general

4. The role of individual women and women’s groups in promoting progressive reform

88

5. The significance of the woman suffrage movement

6. The reasons that progressives wanted to reform political parties and the methods they used to
accomplish this goal

7. The positive effect that progressivism had on the development of professionalism, the
temperance movement, and socialism in America

8. The origins of the NAACP and the importance of W. E. B. Du Bois

9. The movement to restrict immigration and why this was regarded as a progressive reform

10. The differences among socialists, regulators, and trustbusters and their solutions to the
problem of trusts

MAIN THEMES
1. How progressivism was a reaction to the rapid industrialization and urbanization of the
United States in the late nineteenth century

2. That all progressives shared an optimistic vision that an active government could solve
socioeconomic problems and create a better, more ordered and efficient world

3. That progressives wanted to reduce the influence of party machines on politics

4. How the temperance, immigration restriction, and woman suffrage movements took on
crusade-like aspects

5. The differences between progressives who wanted to change people’s private lives and
progressives who sought to change the larger economic and political system

6. The importance of political leadership for the progressive movement

POINTS FOR DISCUSSION
1. Progressives wanted government at all levels to be strong and democratic. How did they
want to achieve these potentially contradictory goals? Should civil service reform be seen as
a precursor to progressive reform?

2. Discuss the changing historical interpretations of the motives, the leaders, and the processes
of progressive reform.

3. What major impulses drove the progressive movement? What specific reforms embodied
those impulses?

4. How did muckrakers, Social Gospel reformers, settlement house workers, and feminists
reflect the central assumptions behind progressivism?

5. Explain how progressivism affected women and, conversely, how women affected
progressivism.

6. Who were the major opponents of progressive reforms? What arguments did they advance
against these reforms? What successes did they have?

89

7. Whose interests were left out of the major progressive reform movement? For what reasons?
How did these interests react to these exclusions?

8. What similarities and/or differences characterized the crusades of progressive reform efforts
to prohibit alcohol, restrict immigration, and achieve the vote for women?

9. Is it accurate to describe the turn of the twentieth century as a time of progressivism? Is this
term misleading? Is there a better word or term that might be used?

INTERPRETATIVE QUESTIONS
1. What state was called the “laboratory of progressivism”? Who was this state’s leading
progressive, and what was accomplished?

2. In general, where were settlement houses located and why? What was their function? What
was the importance of the Hull House?

3. Why did both the commission plan and the manager plan begin in small southern cities and
spread only after they were adopted by larger northern cities? What factors explain this
pattern?

4. Compare and contrast the old and new immigrants in terms of their geographic origins and
their socioeconomic characteristics.

5. How did existing American citizens react to these newer immigrants? How did progressives
react to them?

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Karen Blair, The Clubwoman as Feminist (1980)
Burton Bledstein, The Culture of Professionalism (1976)
Ruth Bourdin, Women and Temperance: The Quest for Power and Liberty, 1873-1900 (1980)
John D. Buenker et al., Progressivism (1977)
Mina Carson, Settlement Folk: Social Thought and the American Settlement Movement, 1885-1930 (1990)
John W. Chambers II, The Tyranny of Change: America in the Progressive Era, 1900-1917 (1980)
John Milton Cooper, The Pivotal Decades: The United States, 1900-1920 (1990)
Alan Dawley, Struggles for Justice: Social Responsibility and the Liberal State (1991)
Carl N. Degler, In Search of Human Nature: The Decline and Revival of Darwinism in American Social
Thought (1991)
Louis Filler, The Muckrakers, rev. ed. (1980)
Linda Gordon, The Great Orphan Abduction (1999)
Thomas J. Jablonsky, The Home, Heaven, and Mother Party: Female Anti-Suffragists in the United
States, 1868-1920 (1994)
David L. Lewis, W. E. B. Du Bois: Biography of a Race, 1868-1919 (1993)
_____, W. E. B. Du Bois:The Fight for Equality and the American Century (2000)
Louis Menand, The Metaphysical Club: A Story of Ideas (2001)
David W. Noble, ed., The Progressive Mind, rev. ed. (1981)
Daniel T. Rodgers, Atlantic Crossings: Social Politics in a Progressive Age (1998)
Katheryn Kish Sklar, Florence Kelley and the Nation’s Work: The Rise of Women’s Political Culture,
1830-1900 (1995)

mcgraw hill, chapter 20 summery

CHAPTER 20
The Imperial Republic

CHAPTER SUMMARY
By the end of the nineteenth century, the territorial expansion that had characterized much of the
history of the United States had dramatically slowed, a victim of its own rapid success. But the
desire to expand did not end with the “closing” of the western frontier. Now supported by the
ideas of Social Darwinism, a new Manifest Destiny turned national attention to events and
territory beyond American shores. The critical year was 1898. First Hawaii was annexed, and
then the country went to war against Spain in Cuba. This “splendid little war,” as Secretary of
State John Hay described the surprisingly quick and thorough American victory, electrified the
population and gave Washington direct control over the Philippines, Puerto Rico, and Guam. In
addition, Cuba now became a virtual American protectorate. In a matter of months, the United
States leaped into the ranks of the imperial powers. This American empire had been acquired for
several reasons: The need for new markets and a racist belief in the superiority of Western
civilization cannot be denied, but strategic considerations and a desire to compete on an equal
basis with the great powers of Europe were also factors. Key figures in this story in the 1890s
were ardent imperialists such as Theodore Roosevelt and William Randolph Hearst, anti-
imperialists such as William Jennings Bryan and Andrew Carnegie, and men torn in both
directions such as William McKinley. Public opinion was also divided, but swayed by both the
new “yellow press” and the actual taking of lands, it ultimately came down on the side of the
expansionists. By 1900 it was clear that the enlarged international position would require the
United States to have a better military system and more assertive diplomacy if the new American
empire was here to stay.

OBJECTIVES
A thorough study of Chapter 20 should enable the student to understand:

1. The Manifest Destiny of the 1890s and how it differed from the Manifest Destiny of the
1840s

2. American foreign policy objectives with respect to Europe, Latin America, and Asia at the
dawn of the twentieth century

3. The variety of factors that contributed to the ultimate American decision to become more
imperialistic

4. The relationship between American economic interests, especially tariff policy, and
developments in Hawaii and Cuba

5. The long- and short-term causes of the Spanish-American War

6. The technological and other reasons for the rise of the “yellow press” and its role in
influencing public opinion

84

7. The military problems that Americans encountered in fighting both the Spanish in Cuba and
the Filipino insurrectionists in the Philippines

8. The problems involved in developing a colonial administration for America’s new empire

9. The limitations of the United States as a global force at the turn of the twentieth century

10. The motives behind the Open Door notes and the Boxer Rebellion

11. The nature of military reforms carried out by Elihu Root following the Spanish-American
War

MAIN THEMES
1. Why Americans turned from the old continental concept of Manifest Destiny to a new
worldwide drive for territory

2. How the Spanish-American War served as the catalyst for transforming vague imperialist
stirrings into a full-fledged American empire

3. How the nation had to make attitudinal, political, military, and ideological adjustments to its
new role as a major world power

POINTS FOR DISCUSSION
1. Compare and contrast the old and the new concepts of Manifest Destiny. Had the economic,
philosophical, and racial motives changed?

2. The United States has always been an expansionist nation. Do you agree or disagree with this
statement? Why or why not?

3. The United States did not turn to expansion immediately following the Civil War. Why the
delay? Why were Americans hesitant, even doubtful? How and why did the Spanish-
American War change that view?

4. Discuss the personalities, philosophies, and developments (at home and abroad) that stirred
American interest in territorial expansion off and on between the Civil War and 1900.

5. What impact did the “yellow press” have on American opinion on expansion in the 1890s?
How did new technology help the yellow press more strongly influence public opinion?
What criticisms might be leveled against that press?

6. Was the Spanish-American War in fact a “splendid little war”? What was splendid about it?
What was sordid, seamy, and ill-conceived about it?

7. Analyze the positions for and against ratification of the Treaty of Paris, 1899. Why were the
anti-imperialists opposed to the treaty? Why did they lose the debate?

8. Discuss the causes and consequences of the Filipino insurrection against the United States.
Why has this war been so little remembered by subsequent generations of Americans?

9. Discuss the background and results of the American Open Door policy in China. Was it little
more than a “theoretical victory” for the United States?

85

10. What weaknesses in the U.S. military were exposed in the wars in Cuba and the Philippines?
How did the United States respond to these problems? What strengths were shown?

MAP EXERCISES
1. Locate Florida, Cuba, Haiti, the Dominican Republic, and Puerto Rico and the major cities in
each.

2. Identify the sites of the most important U.S. victories in the Spanish-American War—
Western Hemisphere and the Pacific.

3. Locate the Philippines, Australia, Hawaii, Samoa, Guam, and Midway.

4. Which possessions were obtained by the United States in the treaty with Spain? Which
possessions were obtained by the United States shortly after the Spanish-American War, but
not directly as part of the treaty?

5. Locate the basic sea route toward the U.S. mainland from the South Pacific.

INTERPRETATIVE QUESTIONS BASED ON MAPS AND TEXT
1. Why could it be said that “the sun never sets on the British Empire”?

2. What European powers other than Great Britain had significant imperial holdings?

3. How did the American empire compare in size to those of major European powers by 1900?

4. Why were events in Cuba of such great interest to the United States?

5. How did the Philippines get involved in a war ostensibly about Cuba?

6. What developments made Santiago the key point in the Cuban theater of the war? What were
the results?

7. How did the results of the war change American attitudes toward future events in the
Caribbean?

8. Why was the acquisition of Pacific islands so important to American trading and naval
interests?

9. How were the annexation of the Philippines and the pronouncement of the Open Door
related?

10. What advantages did American imperialists hope to gain from American possession of the
Philippines?

11. How would annexation of the Philippines affect future U.S. relations with China, Japan, and
the European powers?

12. What geographic features of the Philippines made it so difficult for the United States, or any
central authority, to control the area?

13. How did the freeing of Cuba and the acquisition of Puerto Rico secure American hegemony
in the Caribbean Sea?

86

ESSAY QUESTIONS
These questions are based on the preceding map exercises. They are designed to test students’
knowledge of the geography of the area discussed in this chapter and of its historical
development. Careful reading of the text will help students answer these questions.

1. Why did the United States fight the Spanish-American War in both the Caribbean and the
Pacific?

2. Why did the United States decide to acquire the Philippines, but not Cuba, following the
Spanish-American War?

3. In what ways would nineteenth-century colonial acquisitions help shape twentieth-century
American interests and concerns?

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Robert L. Beisner, Twelve Against Empire (1968)
H. W. Brands, Bound to Empire: The United States and the Philippines (1992)
Kenton Clymer, John Hay: Gentleman as Diplomat (1975)
Michael Hunt, The Making of a Special Relationship: The United States and China to 1914
(1983)
Matthew Frye Jacobson, Barbarian Virtues: The United States Encounters Foreign Peoples at
Home and Aboard, 1876-1917 (2000)
Stuart Creighton Miller, “Benevolent Assimilation”: The American Conquest of the Philippines,
1899-1903 (1982)
Joyce Milton, The Yellow Journalists (1989)
H. Wayne Morgan, America’s Road to Empire (1965)
Edmund Morris, The Rise of Theodore Roosevelt (1979)
Ivan Musicant, Empire by Default: The Spanish-American War and the Dawn of the American
Century (1998)
Walter LaFeber, The Cambridge History of American Foreign Policy, Vol. 2: The Search for
Opportunity, 1865-1913 (1993)
David M. Pletcher, The Diplomacy of Trade and Investment: American Expansion in the
Hemisphere, 1865-1900 (1998)
Hyman Rickover, How the Battleship Maine Was Destroyed (1976)
Emily S. Rosenberg, Spreading the American Dream: American Economic and Cultural
Expansion, 1890-1945 (1982)
Anders Stephanson, Manifest Destiny: American Expansionism and the Empire of Right (1995)
Merze Tate, The United States and the Hawaiian Kingdom (1965)

For Internet resources, practice questions, references to additional books and films, and more,
see this book’s Online Learning Center at www.mhhe.com/unfinishednation4.

mcgraw hill, chapter 19 summery

CHAPTER 19
From Stalemate to Crisis

CHAPTER SUMMARY
For much of the late nineteenth century, American politics seemed to be less a case of “what you
did” and more a case of “who you were.” Both Democrats and Republicans adhered to a practice
of small, limited federal activity and authority. The parties had few significant policy distinctions
between them. Thus, for many voters, party preferences were considered important but were not
usually determined by political platforms. Instead, party identification was often a matter of
geography (the solidly Democratic South), religion (a solidly Irish Catholic Democratic vote),
and/or ethnocultural factors (white, Anglo-Saxon, Protestant Republicans and immigrant
Democrats.) The result of this division was strong party loyalty, high voter participation, and a
series of close national elections in which neither party dominated, and the outcome was often
determined by the personality considerations of the candidates. Into the 1880s, however, several
events led to a disruption of this rather mundane political equilibrium. Hard-pressed farmers,
already dismayed by the national shift of people and money to the cities and away from rural
living, and rightly believing themselves ignored by both parties, rose up in an agrarian revolt of
self-help and grassroots political activism. Although these movements were not united or always
well-organized, they did find initial success in many state elections.
In 1893, an economic panic threw the nation into a severe and prolonged depression. One
of every five industrial workers lost their jobs as hundreds of interconnected businesses
collapsed on each other. Farmers seized the moment by forming the People’s Party, more
commonly known as Populism. With the desire for lower tariffs, currency inflation, and a return
of the silver standard, the election of 1896 shaped up to be critically important in the future
direction of national policy. When the Democrats chose as their candidate the dynamic orator and
supporter of silver William Jennings Bryan of Nebraska, the Populists fused with the Democrats
to avoid splitting their vote. The election, in part, came down to a contest between Bryan’s
energy and charisma and the prodigious fundraising and spending of the Republicans in support
of their candidate, William McKinley. McKinley’s victory revealed some important points: (1)
Populism held only regional appeal, and by joining with the Democrats, the People’s Party ended
any chance it might have had of becoming a major force in American politics; (2) the political
power of rural southern and Midwest states had been clearly eclipsed by industrial business
interests and values; and (3) the Republican Party had finally established itself as the majority
party in the country.

OBJECTIVES
A thorough study of Chapter 19 should enable the student to understand:

1. The changing nature of American politics in the last third of the nineteenth century

2. The problems of political patronage that led to the passage of the Pendleton Act

3. The circumstances that permitted the Democrats to win the presidency in 1884 and 1892

80

4. The origins, purposes, and effectiveness of the Interstate Commerce Act and the Sherman
Antitrust Act

5. The position of the two major parties on the tariff question, and the actual trend of tariff
legislation in the 1880s and 1890s

6. The rise of agrarian discontent as manifested in the Granger movement, the Farmers’
Alliances, and the People’s Party

7. The rise of the silver question from the “Crime of ’73” through the Gold Standard Act of
1900

8. The significance of the presidential election of 1896

9. The reasons for the decline of agrarian discontent after 1896

MAIN THEMES
1. The balance between the two major parties and how that balance could be traced to regional,
religious, cultural, and socioeconomic factors

2. The inability of the political system to respond effectively to the nation’s rapid social and
economic changes

3. How the troubled agrarian sector mounted a powerful, but unsuccessful, challenge to
industrial capitalism and the two-party system, and how this challenge came to a head in the
election of 1896

POINTS FOR DISCUSSION
1. Were there really no great differences between the two major parties during the last quarter of
the nineteenth century?

2. Why was the United States locked in a political stalemate for nearly two decades after the
end of Reconstruction? What were the consequences of this stalemate for political leadership
and public policy?

3. Compare and contrast the major farm groups: the Grange, the Farmers’ Alliances, and the
People’s Party. Why were farmers never a united force? Why did farm groups fail to build
effective alliances with labor unions? Did the People’s Party ultimately offer a realistic
reform agenda? Why or why not?

4. What factors determined a voter’s loyalty during the latter part of the nineteenth century?
Why was this era one of intense enthusiasm and high voter turnout? Were issues of great
importance or were other factors more prominent? What were those other factors, and why
were they so important?

5. Why did the Supreme Court severely restrict efforts to regulate business? What logic did the
Court use in these cases? What effect did these decisions have on business specifically and
on American society generally?

81

6. In what ways did the election of 1884 typify national political contests of the late nineteenth
century? If you had been hired to orchestrate the advertising for either major presidential
contestant, how would you have devised your campaign?

7. Which president of the late nineteenth century would you characterize as the most effective
leader? Explain. If your decision is that no one was an effective leader, was there something
wrong with the political system that did not bring such leaders to the fore?

8. Discuss the response of the major parties and national leaders to public agitation over the
tariff, the trusts, and the railroads.

9. Discuss the reasons for the emergence of an agrarian revolt in the late nineteenth century.
Analyze the successes and failures of the Grange, Farmers’ Alliances, and Populist
movement. Why did the Populists decide to fuse with the Democrats in 1896? Was this a
mistake? What might have happened if they had not taken this action?

10. What changes had occurred in the national economy since 1865 that made the Depression of
1893–1897 so severe? Could the federal government have done anything to lessen the crisis?
Did the government do anything that it should not have done?

11. Analyze the election of 1896 in terms of the candidates, the campaign, and the issues. What
strengths and weaknesses did each candidate have? What accounts for the election results?

MAP EXERCISES
1. Using maps in previous chapters, identify the Great Plains, the silver-mining regions, and the
cotton-tobacco belt.

2. Identify the territories that were not yet states.
3. Identify the states and regions carried by McKinley and Bryan.

INTERPRETATIVE QUESTIONS BASED ON MAPS AND TEXT
1. Where was the Grange strongest? In what parts of the country did the Populist movement
have the most impact? Why?

2. Why were the states carried by Bryan mainly those of the Great Plains, the silver-mining
regions, and the cotton-tobacco belt? Why did Bryan fail to make inroads in the Midwest and
the Northeast?

LIBRARY EXERCISE
The following exercise will require students to consult a historical atlas and other sources found
in most college libraries. Using these library resources and the text, they should be able to
answer the following:

1. Identify the states carried by the Democrats and Republicans, respectively, in 1876, 1880,
1884, 1888, 1892, and 1896. Explain the recurring regional patterns of presidential politics in
the late nineteenth century. Why were the two parties so closely balanced in their control of
Congress and the White House? How did the slight advantage of the Republicans turn into
Republican dominance by the end of the century?

82

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Peter Argersinger, The Limits of Agrarian Radicalism: Western Populism and American Politics
(1995)
Robert F. Durden, The Climax of Populism: The Election of 1896 (1965)
Paul Glad, McKinley, Bryan, and the People (1964)
Lewis L. Gould, The Presidency of William McKinley (1981)
Michael Kazin, The Populist Persuasion: An American History (1995)
Morton Keller, Affairs of State: Public Life in Late Nineteenth-Century America (1977)
Michael E. McGerr, The Decline of Popular Politics (1986)
Samuel McSeveney, The Politics of Depression (1972)
Nell Irvin Painter, Standing at Armageddon: The United States, 1877-1919 (1987)
Theda Skocpol, Protecting Soldiers and Mothers: The Political Origins of Social Policy in the
United States (1992)
Alan Trachtenberg, The Intercorporation of America: Culture and Society in the Gilded Age
(1982)
R. Hal Williams, Years of Decision: American Politics in the 1890s (1978)

For Internet resources, practice questions, references to additional books and films, and more,
see this book’s Online Learning Center at www.mhhe.com/unfinishednation4.

mcgraw hill, chapter 18 summery

CHAPTER 18
The Age of the City

CHAPTER SUMMARY
In the late nineteenth century, America’s industrial success resulted in profound changes in
working and living conditions for millions of people. Each year, hundreds of thousands of people
left the rural areas of America and Europe for industrial jobs in American cities. Fueled mostly
by southern and eastern European immigrants, American cities exploded in size and soon became
colorful medleys of ethnicity and religions. While traditional values would persist, immigrants
were unified by their desire to assimilate. But rapid growth quickly overwhelmed the available
city resources: severe problems rapidly grew in housing, transportation, and health. The search
for order would be long and difficult. Underdeveloped or nonexistent public services contributed
to soaring rates of poverty, crime, and rampant political corruption characterized by “boss rule.”
Private reform groups made some inroads, but they could not overcome the scope of the troubles
or sometimes their own prejudices. While the poorest waged life-and-death struggles to survive,
cities also became vibrant centers for profound cultural change. Mass culture grew, whether a
department store, public park, or a professional baseball team. Work remained an everyday
reality for most, but consumption and leisure activities began to claim a share of the city
dweller’s money and time. At the same time, some Americans sought higher cultural
accomplishments as well. By the end of the century, public libraries, museums, and concert halls
proliferated in every large city. The nation’s intellectual status was pushed forward by
compulsory public education, the founding of many universities, and new ideas in science and
medicine. The problems of America’s new “mass” society would continue, but so too would the
rewards.

OBJECTIVES
A thorough study of Chapter 18 should enable the student to understand:

1. The patterns and processes of urbanization in late-nineteenth-century America

2. The new economic and social problems created by urbanization

3. The technological developments of this era and their effect on society

4. The reasons for the rise of “boss rule” and its relationship with both urbanization and
immigration

5. The early rise of mass consumption and its impact on American life, especially middle-class
urban women

6. The new leisure and entertainment opportunities and their effects on social customs and
attitudes toward race, class, and gender

7. The main trends in literature and art during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries

8. The impact of Darwinian evolution on American intellectual life

77

9. The profound new developments in American medicine and education

MAIN THEMES
1. How the lure of the city attracted foreign and domestic migrants and how these newcomers
and established Americans adjusted to the changes in urban life

2. How rapid urban growth contributed to government mismanagement, inadequate housing,
and precarious health and safety conditions

3. How the urban environment served as the locus for new ideas, technology, fresh approaches
to education, rapid expansion of journalism and marketing, and a new spirit of consumerism

4. How the new order of urban culture inspired serious writers and artists to render realistic
portrayals of the seamy side of urban life, while many middle- and upper-class American city
dwellers were engaging in expanded forms of leisure and entertainment

POINTS FOR DISCUSSION
1. What factors combined to attract great numbers of people to American cities? What were the
characteristics of these migrants? How did these migrants change once they were in the
United States? How did they change America, cities or otherwise?

2. Describe the problems created by the stunning pace at which American cities were growing
in the late nineteenth century. Why did the institutions of American urban life respond so
poorly to these problems?

3. How did the demographics of immigration to the United States change in the late nineteenth
century? What problems were created by these changes? How were those problems handled
by the immigrants? What were the various responses by the American society to these
immigrants?

4. What problems were created by overcrowding in American cities in the late nineteenth
century? Discuss the various technological and social responses to those problems and assess
their effectiveness.

5. Why were reformers generally not successful in dealing with urban problems?

6. Explain the rise and persistence of political machines in late-nineteenth-century American
cities? What functions did they perform? Offer specific examples.

7. Discuss the causes and consequences of mass consumption in late-nineteenth-century
American society.

8. Why did organized spectator sports and other forms of mass entertainment come into being
in late-nineteenth-century America? Why did they retain their popular appeal? How did they
change society?

9. Why did much of the serious art and literature of the late nineteenth century function largely
as social criticism? Was this supposedly “realistic” criticism in fact realistic? Was it based on
a balanced view of America’s burgeoning urban culture?

78

10. Analyze the impact of Darwinism on American scientific and social thought.

11. What long-term impact did the changing nature of the late-nineteenth-century American city
have on American culture?

12. Consider the social, economic, and intellectual life of any large city of the late nineteenth
century. How might rural Americans have regarded the city? How did the large cities affect
those who remained on the farm or in a small town?

BIBLIOGRAPHY
John M. Allswang, Bosses, Machines and Urban Voters (1977)
John Bodnar, The Transplanted: A History of Immigrants in America (1985)
Stephan F. Brumberg, Going to America, Going to School (1986)
Edwin G. Burroughs and Mike Wallace, Gotham: A History of New York City to 1898 (1998)
Howard Chudacoff, The Evolution of American Urban Society, rev. ed. (1981)
Sarah Deutsch, Women and the City: Gender, Space, and Power in Boston, 1870-1940 (2000)
Lori Ginzberg, Women and the Work of Benevolence: Morality, Politics, and Class in the
Nineteenth Century United States (1990)
Clyde Griffen and Sally Griffen, Natives and Newcomers (1977)
Allen Guttman, A Whole New Ball Game: An Interpretation of American Sports (1988)
John F. Kasson, Amusing the Million: Coney Island at the Turn of the Century (1978)
Desmond King, Making Americans: Immigration, Race, and the Origins of Diverse Democracy
(2000)
William Leach, Land of Desire: Merchants, Power, and the Rise of a New American Culture
(1993)
Lawrence Levine, Highbrow/Lowbrow: The Emergence of a Cultural Hierarchy in America
(1988)
New York, PBS documentary (1999–2001)
James T. Patterson, America’s Struggle Against Poverty (1981)
Jacob Riis, How the Other Half Lives (1890)
Thomas Sowell, Ethnic America (1981)
Christine Stansell, American Moderns: Bohemian New York and the Creation of a New Century
(2001)
Susan Strasser, Satisfaction Guaranteed: The Making of the American Mass Market (1989)
Henry Yu, Thinking Orientals: Migration, Contact, and Exoticism in Modern America (2001)

For Internet resources, practice questions, references to additional books and films, and more,
see this book’s Online Learning Center at www.mhhe.com/unfinishednation4.

mcgraw hill, chapter 17 summery

CHAPTER 17
Industrial Supremacy

CHAPTER SUMMARY
During the three decades after the Civil War, the United States became the world’s leading
industrial power. A fortunate combination of sufficient raw materials, a large labor supply, an
astonishing list of technological accomplishments, the emergence of modern large-scale business
techniques (led by railroads), accessible nationwide markets, and supportive state and national
governments helped boost the United States past its international rivals. This rapid
transformation had a profound impact on the lives of millions. To consumers, mass production
offered a wide array of material essentials and comforts at increasingly affordable prices. For
workers, mass production resulted in more laborers surrendering their economic independence to
become unprotected wage earners, increasingly dependent and controlled by their employers. For
their part, many employers viewed their employees as an inexpensive and easily replaceable
element of their corporate structure. As many employers devised new methods to extract as much
labor from their workers as possible, a powerful new business philosophy developed that both
protected the inequalities of capitalism and offered hope to those who suffered the most from
these differences. The widespread belief in this “self-made man” theory of rugged individualism
would both mollify a good deal of labor discontent and help put off the development of public
welfare and occupational health and safety standards for generations.
Critics of business, of course, existed. The abuses of late-nineteenth-century American
capitalism inspired a growing cadre of reformers who were not workers to offer a series of
proposals, including the “single tax” on land. And not all workers accepted the notion that the
owners of capital—some of whom had come to monopolize their industries—were the most “fit”
to rule business. Some of them turned to socialism; others tried to build labor unions with at least
local, if not national, power. Nonetheless, reformers and union organizers faced many difficult
problems, not the least of which were divisions among workers and a powerful (and much more
united) group of employers. The result was a series of often violent strikes and little in the way of
sustained reform or great power in the hands of national unions.

OBJECTIVES
A thorough study of Chapter 17 should enable the student to understand:

1. The reasons for the rapid industrial development of the United States in the late nineteenth
century

2. The array of new technology and its impact on industrial growth

3. The role of the individual entrepreneur in various American industries

4. The emergence and practices of large-scale American business organizations in the late
nineteenth century

5. The various intellectual defenses of and justifications for the new industrial capitalism

73

6. The various criticisms of industrial capitalism and solutions proposed by its critics

7. The working conditions facing all those who toiled within the system of industrial capitalism,
particularly immigrants, women, and children

8. The rise of organized labor and the reasons it generally failed to achieve its major objectives

MAIN THEMES
1. How various factors (including the availability of raw materials and labor, the development
of new technologies, the presence of growing markets, and friendly governments) combined
to make the United States a global industrial leader

2. How and why industrial capitalism came to be extolled for its accomplishments and attacked
for its excesses

3. How American workers both benefited from industrial capitalism and reacted to the physical
and psychological stresses of this new economic order

POINTS FOR DISCUSSION
1. How do you account for America’s impressive industrial growth in the late nineteenth
century? Why was this growth so much more rapid in America than in Europe?

2. Which inventions of the late nineteenth century had the greatest immediate impact on
American industry specifically and American society generally? Why did they have this
impact? Which inventions had the greatest long-term impact and why?

3. Horatio Alger and Edward Bellamy both produced best-selling books in the late nineteenth
century. Why did Americans want to read about both America’s greatness and America’s
great need to reform? Is there paradox here? How do the reform ideas of the late nineteenth
century compare with reformers earlier in the century?

4. Describe the evolution of the late-nineteenth-century corporation. What roles did government
play in this story? What roles did government not play (but might have played)?

5. Would you describe the entrepreneurs of the late nineteenth century as “robber barons” or
“captains of industry”? Why would you choose one term over the other? Did they really
believe in free enterprise? Why or why not?

6. What philosophies of the late nineteenth century helped industrialists rationalize their
methods and power? What elements in their philosophies would you agree with and what
would you disagree with? What factors were not considered in these ideas?

7. In what ways were John D. Rockefeller and Andrew Carnegie similar? In what ways were
they not necessarily similar?

8. Analyze the various criticisms of late-nineteenth-century American capitalism. Which
criticism was the most cogent and why? Which was the most practical and why? Which was
the least practical and why?

74

9. Describe the most important late-nineteenth-century changes in both the nature of the
American workforce and the conditions of the workplace. Why did most industrial workers
accept the difficult conditions of their work?

10. Describe and analyze the various efforts made during the late nineteenth century to create
national labor organizations. Which was the most successful and why? Which was the least
successful and why? What factors were most important in determining success or failure?
Why was organized labor not a stronger force in late-nineteenth-century America?

MAP EXERCISES
1. Identify the route of the first transcontinental railroad and the place where the two lines met.

2. Note the other major railroad lines.

3. Identify the area of the country best served by railroads as of 1870.

4. Note the areas of the country that experienced the most significant railroad development
from 1870 to 1890.

INTERPRETATIVE QUESTIONS BASED ON MAPS AND TEXT
1. Aside from the sparsely populated areas of the West, what part of the country lagged in
railroad expansion? Why?

2. What geographic barriers and economic realities impeded railroad development in the West?
How were they overcome?

3. Why was the Pullman railroad strike in the Chicago area so disruptive of the national
transportation system?

4. What factors made the region from Pittsburgh to Chicago America’s industrial heartland?

ESSAY QUESTIONS
These questions are based on the preceding map exercises. They are designed to test students’
knowledge of the geography of the area discussed in this chapter and of its historical
development. Careful reading of the text will help students answer these questions.

1. Explain the interplay among railroad development, raw materials, and industrial expansion.
What area of the country led in these areas? Why?

2. How did the railroad contribute to the creation of a truly national economy in the United
States?

3. What impact did a lack of railroad facilities have on the areas least served by railroads?

75

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Melvin Dubofsky, Industrialism and the American Worker, 1865-1920 (1975)
Elliott J. Gorn, Mother Jones: The Most Dangerous Woman in America (2001)
Kevin Kenny, Making Sense of the Molly Maguires (1998)
Edward C. Kirkland, Dream and Thought in the Business Community, 1860-1900 (1956)
Norma R. Lamoreaux, The Great Merger Movement in American Business, 1895-1904 (1985)
Walter Licht, Industrializing America: the Nineteenth Century (1995)
Harold C. Livesay, Andrew Carnegie and the Rise of Big Business (1975)
David Montgomery, The Fall of the House of Labor: The Workplace, the State, and American
Labor Activism, 1865-1925 (1987)
David Noble, America by Design: Science, Technology, and the Rise of Corporate Capitalism
(1977)
Glenn Porter, The Rise of Big Business, 1860-1910 (1973)
Leonard S. Reich, The Making of American Industrial Research: Science and Business at GE
and Bell, 1876-1926 (1985)
Nick Salvatore, Eugene V. Debs: Citizen and Socialist (1982)
John L. Thomas, Alternative America: Henry George, Edward Bellamy, Henry Demarest Lloyd,
and the Adversary Tradition (1983)
Robert Wiebe, The Search for Order, 1877-1920 (1968)
Oliver Zunz, Making America Corporate, 1870-1920 (1990)

For Internet resources, practice questions, references to additional books and films, and more,
see this book’s Online Learning Center at www.mhhe.com/unfinishednation4.

mcgraw hill, chapter 16 summery

CHAPTER 16
The Conquest of the Far West

CHAPTER SUMMARY
The western frontier has been, and remains, such a powerful influence on American culture and
memory that it is important to recall that much of this memory was shaped from romantic myths
and seldom-realized ideals. For some, the West was a land of adventure, and there were examples
of brave and courageous people who took up a rugged life in hopes of a better future. But the
land that was new to thousands of migrants on the overland trails was far from empty and
unknown. Major portions of the American West had long been populated by Indians, Spanish,
and Mexicans. And the post–Civil War boom of settlement was not just by white Americans, but
by people from around the world, many having similar aspirations and finding similar
challenges. White settlement followed boom-and-bust patterns in the three industries that came
to dominate the region in the second half of the nineteenth century: mining, ranching, and
commercial agriculture. Whites, Blacks, Asians, Mexicans, and many others made up the labor
force for these three industries. The result was a fluid, racially diverse, and often mobile
population beset with terrific prejudice and discrimination. Still, there were many
accomplishments.
Earlier in the nineteenth century, the West had been a decidedly underdeveloped region
with an almost colonial relationship to the more industrial and populated Northeast and Midwest.
Except for a few pockets in the Far West, by 1860 the frontier line of agricultural settlement
stopped at the eastern edge of the Great Plains. Plains Indians who waged a fierce fight to stay on
their lands, an unfamiliar environment, and the absence of sufficient rainfall combined to
discourage further advancement westward. However, by the end of the century, the Indian barrier
to white settlement had been removed. A transcontinental railroad now linked East with West.
Cattlemen had spearheaded development of Texas and the Southwest. Farther west, gold and
silver strikes had convinced thousands to come out in search of wealth. In between were an
increasing number of white farmers who used the new railroad branches to reach far-away
markets. The economic rewards were sometimes great, but so too were the risks. The
competition was intense, and the markets had wide fluctuations in demand and prices.
Throughout it all, people came and stayed in such numbers that by the 1890s, the era of the
frontier seemed to be ending. Americans, in particular, longed to keep alive this place of their
imagination and assumed values. From this grew the iconic West. In art and stories and even
reenactments, the Wild West remained, at least in spirit, as the nation progressed toward the
twentieth century.

OBJECTIVES
A thorough study of Chapter 16 should enable the student to understand:

1. The cultural characteristics of the varied populations of the West

2. The pattern of settlement on the last American frontier and the significance of the frontier in

69

American history

3. The regional and national impact of the discovery of gold and silver and other minerals in the
West

4. The development of the cattle industry in the American Southwest after 1860

5. The powerful influence of the West on American popular culture

6. The methods used by the federal government to reduce the threat of the Plains Indians and
the Indians’ ultimate fate

7. The reasons for the transition from subsistence to commercial farming and the effect of the
change on the West

MAIN THEMES
1. The varied ethnic and racial cultures that characterized the American West and how Anglo-
European settlers came to dominate this part of the country

2. The transformation of the Far West from a sparsely populated region containing Indians and
various settlers of Hispanic, European, and Asian background into a part of the nation’s
capitalistic economy

3. The closing of the frontier as Indian resistance was eliminated; as miners, ranchers, and
cowboys penetrated the West; and as railroads opened the area for general settlement

4. The development of mining, ranching, and commercial agriculture as the three major
industries of the West

5. The cultural development of a romantic Western myth as an extension of traditional
American beliefs and ideals

6. The opportunities offered and the problems encountered by farmers as the agricultural sector
of the West entered boom-and-bust cycles

POINTS FOR DISCUSSION
1. What factors promoted settlement of the West? Why did the unsettled West hold a strong
romantic appeal for many Americans? In what ways were the romantic view and the realities
compatible? Why has the romantic vision been perpetuated in American popular culture?

2. Describe the development of the cattle industry in the West and Southwest after 1860. Why
was the period of the open range relatively short? What was the life of a cowboy like?

3. Explain the cultural system that developed in the American Southwest under Spanish and
Mexican rule? What impact did Anglo-American dominance have on Hispanic society?

4. Discuss the impact of Chinese immigrants on the American West. How did Anglo-Americans
respond to that immigration? What resulted from that response?

5. Discuss the culture of the Plains Indians and the reasons for Indian conflict with white
America. Why was violence so common? Was a peaceful resolution possible? Why or why

70

not?

6. What was the Dawes Act? What does it tell you about white values and intentions? Was it a
reasonable alternative to the status quo? What role did it play in the final outcome of the
story of the Plains Indians?

7. Describe the pattern of development and decline in the mining industry. What was life like
for the men who worked in the mines and the women who lived in the mining camps?

8. Describe the conditions for farming on the Great Plains. What was attractive about it? What
special grievances contributed to an agrarian malaise in the latter part of the nineteenth
century?

9. What does the actual history of the American West tell us about the significance of the
frontier in American history? What was the myth of the frontier? What was the reality of the
frontier? Why do you think Americans have been so persistent in maintaining the myths of
the West?

MAP EXERCISES
1. Identify the major cattle trails and the states and territories they went through.

2. Note the major cities on the cattle trails and the railroads to them.

INTERPRETATIVE QUESTIONS BASED ON MAPS AND TEXT
1. Why did the long cattle drives originate in Texas, and why did the cattle have to be driven
northward?

2. Why did the frontier line stop where it did about 1860?

3. What forces destroyed the system of open range and long drives? What replaced it?

ESSAY QUESTIONS
These questions are based on the preceding map exercises. They are designed to test students’
knowledge of the geography of the area discussed in this chapter and of its historical
development. Careful reading of the text will help students answer these questions.

1. Compare and contrast the long-term impact on the West of mining, ranching, and farming.

2. How did the West remain in somewhat of a colonial relationship with the Northeast and
Midwest throughout the nineteenth century? What was the long-term significance of this sort
of relationship?

3. Consider the major topographical features of the West and explain how they were crucial in
shaping settlement patterns, economic development, and cultural characteristics of the West.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Ray A. Billington and Martin Ridge, Westward Expansion, 5th ed. (1982)
Dee Brown, Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee: An Indian History of the American West (1970)

71

William Cronon et al., eds., Under an Open Sky: Rethinking America’s Western Past (1992)

Arnold De Leon, They Called Them Greasers: Anglo Attitudes Toward Mexicans in Texas,
1821-1900 (1983)
Gilbert Fite, The Farmer’s Frontier, 1865-1900 (1966)
Joy S. Kasson, Buffalo Bill’s Wild West: Celebrity, Memory, and Popular History (2000)
Patricia Nelson Limerick, The Legacy of Conquest: The Unbroken Past of the American West
(1987)
Patricia Nelson Limerick et al., eds., Trails: Toward a New Western History (1991)
Dean L. May, Three Frontiers: Family, Land, and Society in the American West, 1850-1900
(1994)
Janet A. McDonnell, The Dispossession of the American Indian, 1887-1934 (1991)
L. G. Moses, Wild West Shows and the Images of American Indians, 1883-1933 (1996)
Malcolm J. Rohrbough, Days of Gold: The California Gold Rush and the American Nation
(1997)
Lillian Schlissel, Women’s Diaries of the Westward Journey (1982)
Richard W. Slatta, Cowboys of the Americas (1990)
Mark David Spence, Dispossesing the Wilderness: Indian Removal and the Making of the
National Parks (1999)
Ronald Takaki, Strangers From a Different Shore: A History of Asian Americans (1989)
The West, PBS documentary (1996)

For Internet resources, practice questions, references to additional books and films, and more,
see this book’s Online Learning Center at www.mhhe.com/unfinishednation4.